BASIC CONCEPTS IN MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION
- Assessment
- Measurement
- Testing
- Evaluation
- Monitoring
A teacher prepares a set of questions about a particular topic or topics to be answered by
students. The questions therefore will comprise a test
After questions are done, they are marked and a number of correct answers are being
counted. This process of marking and counting the correct answers is what is called
Measurement.
After marking and counting correct responses the teacher concludes that the topic
was well understood or not. This process of judgment is what is called Evaluation.
NB: Sometimes the term evaluation is used synonymously with the term
assessment.
The three concepts therefore are referred to stages of the same process which is
ASSESSMENT.
ASSESSMENT
(Includes Testing, Measurement and evaluation)
Assessment- process of collecting data or information on students’ achievement and
performance.
WHAT DO WE ASSESS IN AN EDUCATIONALCONTEXT?
- Inputs:
E.g. Text books, students etc. in terms of how good are they or the ratio between
materials and the number of students.
2. ducational process:
- Teaching and learning process-in terms of how good or how well is the process.
- Managerial assessment- how good is the head teacher, principal and other school
managers.
3. Learning outcomes:
How do students perform, this will enable to know how efficient or effective the
process of teaching and learning is.
4. Physical infrastructures
- How good are they
- How comfortable one is on them
- How confined are they to the environment.
5. Teacher’s effectiveness:
6. Student’s characteristics
E.g. Their aspirations, interest, aptitude (non cognitive)
Therefore assessment needs to focus on the three domains
• Cognitive
• Affective
• Psychomotor
TESTING
• Is the process of administering a test.
What is a test?
- A test refers to a set of items or questions designed to be presented to one or more
students under specified conditions.
In educational context tests can have weaknesses when not properly handled. The weaknesses
can arise from:
- Sampling of test items
- Sample size especially if the sample is not widely spread
- Administration- is the environment where the test is done conducive? Physical and
psychological environment so as to ensure validity.
TYPES OF TESTS
Tests are not limited to paper and pencil inventories; there are wide ranges of test samples as
follows;
1. Individual/group tests
- Individual tests; comprises things like interview and normal classroom tests
- Group work; some students tend to do better in individual test while others in
group tests.
2. Power(time)/Speeded tests(Amount)
- Powered tests; students are being given much time to complete an assignment
- Speeded tests; Amount of test items per test becomes bigger compared to the
amount of time given to complete. This can lead to errors.
3. Verbal/non verbal tests
- Verbal; mostly tests communication skills
- Non verbal; tests physical performance or psychomotor skills
4. Paper and pencil/ Performatory tests
Normal exams/ Action/Psychomotor skills
MEASUREMENT
It is a process of obtaining and assigning numerical description of the degree to which an
individual possesses a particular characteristic.
E.g. Assigning 30 to a particular student is what makes testing to be a measuring
process.
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal scale or classificatory scale.
In this case, numbers have got no meaning rather they are used for identification and
categorization process of objects or attributes.
E.g. In soccer-players are being given numbers in order to be identified like
1-Goalkeeper
2-First basemen
3-Second basemen
NB: the numbers do not mean anything
2. Ordinal Scale
It is a scale used for classifying but also assigning rank order. E.g. ranking individuals in
a class according to their test scores. Student scores could be ordered from first, second,
third and so forth to the lowest score.
Advantages
- Gives more information than nominal measurement.
Disadvantages
• The units of ordinal scale are most likely unequal-the difference
between the first person and the second and the third does not
necessarily vary equally.
• No mathematical operation can be performed through this scale since
addition and subtraction of such units yield meaningless numbers.
3. Interval Scale
The interval between two values is fixed or is in equal means.
The scale contains properties from nominal and ordinal scale. E.g. Thermometers and
calendar years. The difference in temperature between 10 and 20 is the same as that
between 47 and57 degrees centigrade.
Advantages
• Some mathematical operations can be performed e.g. Addition and subtraction
Disadvantages
• We cannot multiply or divide because we do not know the absolute upper and
lower limits. E.g. Temperature 0 does not mean that there is no temperature,
100 in Math does not mean that one has all abilities in math.
4. Ratio scale
The scale is used for measuring height, volume, weight, distance etc. it is rarely used and
achieved in educational assessment either in cognitive or affective areas.
Advantages
• Allows ratio comparison. E.g. Asha is ½ times as taller as her sister Anna.
individual possesses a particular characteristic.
E.g. Assigning 30 to a particular student is what makes testing to be a measuring
process.
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal scale or classificatory scale.
In this case, numbers have got no meaning rather they are used for identification and
categorization process of objects or attributes.
E.g. In soccer-players are being given numbers in order to be identified like
1-Goalkeeper
2-First basemen
3-Second basemen
NB: the numbers do not mean anything
2. Ordinal Scale
It is a scale used for classifying but also assigning rank order. E.g. ranking individuals in
a class according to their test scores. Student scores could be ordered from first, second,
third and so forth to the lowest score.
Advantages
- Gives more information than nominal measurement.
Disadvantages
• The units of ordinal scale are most likely unequal-the difference
between the first person and the second and the third does not
necessarily vary equally.
• No mathematical operation can be performed through this scale since
addition and subtraction of such units yield meaningless numbers.
3. Interval Scale
The interval between two values is fixed or is in equal means.
The scale contains properties from nominal and ordinal scale. E.g. Thermometers and
calendar years. The difference in temperature between 10 and 20 is the same as that
between 47 and57 degrees centigrade.
Advantages
• Some mathematical operations can be performed e.g. Addition and subtraction
Disadvantages
• We cannot multiply or divide because we do not know the absolute upper and
lower limits. E.g. Temperature 0 does not mean that there is no temperature,
100 in Math does not mean that one has all abilities in math.
4. Ratio scale
The scale is used for measuring height, volume, weight, distance etc. it is rarely used and
achieved in educational assessment either in cognitive or affective areas.
Advantages
• Allows ratio comparison. E.g. Asha is ½ times as taller as her sister Anna.
FUNCTIONS OF MEASUREMENT IN EDUCATION
The functions are grouped into three categories;
I. INSTRUCTIONAL
II. GUIDANCE and COUNCELLING
III. ADMINISTRATIVE PURPOSES
INSTRUCTIONAL
• Motivate and enhance learning to students. An appropriate and fair test enhances students’
morale to learn while unfair one discourages them, so as teachers we need to be very careful
when constructing a test.
• Tests provide feedback to the teacher on the nature of the students. The results may be used
for diagnosis of possible student’s weaknesses and evaluation of student’s performance.
• Provides feedback on the effectiveness of instruction(teaching and learning process)
Has the instruction been effective?
Is there certain content that was poorly covered?
Student’s misconception due to confused instruction? (for improvement to be made)
GUIDANCE AND COUNCELLING
Students can be guided on how to study depending on the frequency of their scores.
ADMINISTRATIVE PURPOSES
Measurement can save a function of correcting administrative issues often related to program
evaluation. Test information indicates whether or not student needs are being met. In some
schools, school boards use student’s test results for the evaluation of the teaching
performance or sorting students in streams e.g. Stream A-Intelligent, B-Moderate etc.
administratively decisions can be easily made from test results.
EVALUATION
• It is a systematic process of observing, collecting, analyzing and interpreting information
to determine the extent to which students are achieving what the teacher’s intends them
to achieve.
• It is the judgment regarding to quality, value and worth of response, product, and
performance based on the established criteria and curriculum standards.
• Teacher’s intentions are normally expressed as instructional objectives.
• Generally evaluation deals with value judgment on the entire process of testing,
measuring and evaluating the desirability of the results.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EVALUATION
i. Know exactly what to be evaluated.
o Specify clearly and exactly what has to be evaluated. The characteristics to be
measured should be specified in advance, this will help in determining the
evaluation device to use.
ii. Select evaluation technique that is relevant and appropriate to the characteristics
to be measured.
iii. Have a variety of evaluation techniques in order to achieve the
comprehensiveness in evaluation. E.g. you can use both observation and written
tests.
iv. Know the limitation of each evaluation technique you intend to use.
v. Evaluation should basically be made to obtain information on which to base on
instructional decisions.
PURPOSE OF EVALUATION/ASSESSMENT
Assessment/evaluation can be done both at macro level and micro level
• Macro level assessment- A country wide evaluation/assessment.
• Micro level assessment- Focuses on assessment at school level.
WHY EVALUATION/ASSESSMENT AT MACRO LEVEL.
i. To obtain feedback on programmes, methods, systems(new and continuing)
E.g. 7 years primary level, 3 years university, 4 years O-Level enough to ensure
effective learning.
ii. Information to stakeholders.
E.g. Parents, employers, government need to know the level of education one has
attained.
iii. Redefining the purpose of education. What is the purpose of primary school
education? Is it about only knowing how to read and write or otherwise.
iv. Selection
o To place people to other levels e.g. Form1, form5, universities
o Selection focuses on the upper profile in terms of examinations
v. Placement
Some schools use assessment results to place students either in arts or science
classes.
Though this is not good for the betterment of the student’s future career aspiration.
vi. Certification.
E.g. Primary schools certificate, form four certificate, advanced certificate etc.
vi. Comparability
Comparison on quality of education with other countries e.g. Tanzania, Kenya etc.
vii. Employment decisions
Employers look for high performing students high/good pass mark
viii. Promotion purposes
ix. Remedial classes/repetitio.
The functions are grouped into three categories;
I. INSTRUCTIONAL
II. GUIDANCE and COUNCELLING
III. ADMINISTRATIVE PURPOSES
INSTRUCTIONAL
• Motivate and enhance learning to students. An appropriate and fair test enhances students’
morale to learn while unfair one discourages them, so as teachers we need to be very careful
when constructing a test.
• Tests provide feedback to the teacher on the nature of the students. The results may be used
for diagnosis of possible student’s weaknesses and evaluation of student’s performance.
• Provides feedback on the effectiveness of instruction(teaching and learning process)
Has the instruction been effective?
Is there certain content that was poorly covered?
Student’s misconception due to confused instruction? (for improvement to be made)
GUIDANCE AND COUNCELLING
Students can be guided on how to study depending on the frequency of their scores.
ADMINISTRATIVE PURPOSES
Measurement can save a function of correcting administrative issues often related to program
evaluation. Test information indicates whether or not student needs are being met. In some
schools, school boards use student’s test results for the evaluation of the teaching
performance or sorting students in streams e.g. Stream A-Intelligent, B-Moderate etc.
administratively decisions can be easily made from test results.
EVALUATION
• It is a systematic process of observing, collecting, analyzing and interpreting information
to determine the extent to which students are achieving what the teacher’s intends them
to achieve.
• It is the judgment regarding to quality, value and worth of response, product, and
performance based on the established criteria and curriculum standards.
• Teacher’s intentions are normally expressed as instructional objectives.
• Generally evaluation deals with value judgment on the entire process of testing,
measuring and evaluating the desirability of the results.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EVALUATION
i. Know exactly what to be evaluated.
o Specify clearly and exactly what has to be evaluated. The characteristics to be
measured should be specified in advance, this will help in determining the
evaluation device to use.
ii. Select evaluation technique that is relevant and appropriate to the characteristics
to be measured.
iii. Have a variety of evaluation techniques in order to achieve the
comprehensiveness in evaluation. E.g. you can use both observation and written
tests.
iv. Know the limitation of each evaluation technique you intend to use.
v. Evaluation should basically be made to obtain information on which to base on
instructional decisions.
PURPOSE OF EVALUATION/ASSESSMENT
Assessment/evaluation can be done both at macro level and micro level
• Macro level assessment- A country wide evaluation/assessment.
• Micro level assessment- Focuses on assessment at school level.
WHY EVALUATION/ASSESSMENT AT MACRO LEVEL.
i. To obtain feedback on programmes, methods, systems(new and continuing)
E.g. 7 years primary level, 3 years university, 4 years O-Level enough to ensure
effective learning.
ii. Information to stakeholders.
E.g. Parents, employers, government need to know the level of education one has
attained.
iii. Redefining the purpose of education. What is the purpose of primary school
education? Is it about only knowing how to read and write or otherwise.
iv. Selection
o To place people to other levels e.g. Form1, form5, universities
o Selection focuses on the upper profile in terms of examinations
v. Placement
Some schools use assessment results to place students either in arts or science
classes.
Though this is not good for the betterment of the student’s future career aspiration.
vi. Certification.
E.g. Primary schools certificate, form four certificate, advanced certificate etc.
vi. Comparability
Comparison on quality of education with other countries e.g. Tanzania, Kenya etc.
vii. Employment decisions
Employers look for high performing students high/good pass mark
viii. Promotion purposes
ix. Remedial classes/repetitio.
WHY EVALUATION/ASSESSMENT AT MICRO LEVEL.
i. Feedback to teachers and students in order to improve the teaching and learning
process.
ii. Realism - How realistic was the teacher towards teaching since teaching is a planned
process using syllabus, s/work, lesson plan and notes. At the end of the term a
teacher can evaluate him/herself to whether he/she adhered to them or not through
examinations feedback
iii. Grouping people/students
o Slow learners vs. fast learners
o Underachieving Vs. high achievers-For help
The grouping can be:
a. Within the class
b. Between classes/streams- A-For very intelligent
B-Bright, Middle
C-Lower
c. By schools-Special schools
-Normal schools
If students are really gifted have to be helped to reach the highest on their
potential.
Lower achieving need to be helped to achieve better.
iv. Readiness
How ready are your students for the next skills, help to identify whether students
are ready to enter into the next level.
v. Attainment level
Assessment helps to know the attainment level to be above, below or average.
This can be obtained by calculating the mean. A normal curve will help to know if
the test is fair.
vi. Going beyond normal
• The high and low achievers
- Find reasons for lower achievers
- Find ways or opportunities to help high achievers
vii. Diagnosing -student’s problems, teacher’s effectiveness
viii. Specific difficult areas
To identify difficult areas for more help.
ix. To identify Special needs students for more help
- Visual, auditory problems etc.
There are two levels of models:
i. Macro level model-we look on the education system at large
ii. Micro level-School/Classroom level assessment
MACRO LEVEL MODEL (CIPP MODEL)
C – Context
I – Inputs
P – Processes
P - Product
CONTEXT
• National and international climate supporting the education system e.g. is the education
system self supportive or otherwise e.g. TZ 40% of the budget comes from outside so one
can evaluate the effectiveness of the education system to be successful or not e.g. SEDP
and PEDP funded by World Bank (WB) and International Monetary Finance (IMF).
• How is the internal or international climate economically capable of supporting the
education system?
• Political stability: Is the political atmosphere of a country stable to support the growth
and effectiveness of the education system?
• Cultural features: Are cultural norms and traditions supporting the education system?
• Economic Strength: Is the education budget sufficient to boost the education system?
• Intellectual climate: Are materials available e.g. books, journals.
INPUTS
• Adequate budget for education
• Parents and community are they supporting education system
• Language of instruction. is it user friendly?
• Culture
• Students readiness
• Physical infrastructures
• Administrative personnel
PROCESS
• How effective and efficient is the teaching and learning process? Attitude of teachers
towards their students. Attitude of students themselves towards learning etc.
• Order and discipline at school which enables smooth process of learning and teaching
• Is the curriculum well prepared, organized and covered?
• Is time to study sufficient to provide good outcomes?
• Is there regular evaluation and feedback to student and administration?
• Variety of teaching strategies during the T/L process
OUTCOMES/ PRODUCT
Focus on system performance
INDICATORS OF SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
• Progression rate: e.g. from class 1-7 if the teaching and learning
process is good students should move to finish the circle.
• Repetition rate: No need of students to repeat the class, if the system
really functions well.
• Dropout rate: A good system should work hard to minimize student
dropout rate.
• Pass rate: How many students pass the exam? How many get A, B, C,
D?
• Participation rate: How many students are enrolled in terms of gender?
E.g. at primary, secondary, university etc and why?
• Completion rate: Do all students who started standard first year
complete the course?
MICRO LEVEL EVALUATION (classroom context)
PHASES OF MICRO LEVEL EVALUATION
i. Pre-instruction: Before going to teach you should have pre requisite information on:
o What do you need your student to know?
o How can you make your students to be interested with your course?
o How are you going to motivate them?
o How much time are you going to spend?
o T/L strategies to be applied should be predetermined; they need to be relevant
to the subject matter.
ii. During instruction:
a. Focus on students attention
b. Focus on students’ understanding by asking them some questions giving them
exercises etc.
c. Response to students’ answers- design a way of the students to elaborate and
clarify students’ doubts. Make a conclusion to what is the right answer.
d. Helping special need students.
iii. Post instruction:
After finishing a module/ topic you can provide a formative or summative test to
evaluate the effectiveness of the T/L process.
TERMINOLOGIES FOR EVALUATION PROCEDURES
i. Norm referenced measurement/evaluation: scores are interpreted in relation to the
scores of a defined group normally called a normative group. How many students are
below/ above or average normal.
ii. Criterion referenced evaluation: scores are interpreted in terms of a clearly defined
domain of learning task. Are the student capable of defining , explaining, demonstrating
etc. a student in this case is competing with his own standards not with others.
iii. Formative evaluation: done continuously during the whole process of teaching and
learning to ascertain that students are following well the lesson. Monitors the learning
process, provide continuous feedback to both students and teachers with regard to
success.
iv. Summative evaluation: designed to determine the extent to which the instruction
objectives have been achieved. Done at the end of the unit of instruction or at the end of
the course. Used for certification.
v. Diagnostic evaluation: help to discover the persisting difficulties left unsolved during
formative evaluation. Aim at helping a student having a problem
vi. Placement evaluation: is concerned with students’ entry performance and intend to
check if the student processes the knowledge and skills necessary for him/her to begin the
program. This can also enable in suggesting placement of some students in advanced
course of study or in special class or determine the teaching and learning activities to be
used.
vii. Maximum performance: deals with interpreting how well an individual is performing
and how best can perform e.g. aptitude test which are designed to predict success in some
future learning activities and achievement test which indicates the degree of success in
the past learning activities.
viii. Typical performance: focuses on what individual will do rather than what they can
do. Focuses on identifying interest, attitudes and other personal habit. This is used for
counseling students in their further education and vocation choice.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Educational goals; are general aims or purposes of education that are stated as broad as long
range outcomes the school is striving to achieve.
Educational goals originates from national policies and lead to formulation of general school
programmes.
Examples of educational goals includes:
• To develop inquiring mind
• To prepare self-reliant citizens
• To inculcate socialist thinking in young
• To understand the global climate change
What are instructional objectives?
- Are statements that clearly define the desired learning outcome that are expected from
teaching and learning process.
- They show knowledge, understanding, application, thinking and performance skills as
well as attitude to be gained by students as a result of instruction.
- Instructional objectives are very crucial in communicating the purpose of instruction
to students and teachers.
- Furthermore, they provide a guideline for students’ evaluation.
- Instructional objectives can provide a guideline to the teacher on the appropriate
techniques and materials to be used during the whole process of teaching and learning.
- Instructional objectives are sometimes termed as behavioral objectives or specific
learning outcomes since they are more specific and explicit compared to goals which
are too general.
• Eg. by the end of the lesson each student should be able to
i. Feedback to teachers and students in order to improve the teaching and learning
process.
ii. Realism - How realistic was the teacher towards teaching since teaching is a planned
process using syllabus, s/work, lesson plan and notes. At the end of the term a
teacher can evaluate him/herself to whether he/she adhered to them or not through
examinations feedback
iii. Grouping people/students
o Slow learners vs. fast learners
o Underachieving Vs. high achievers-For help
The grouping can be:
a. Within the class
b. Between classes/streams- A-For very intelligent
B-Bright, Middle
C-Lower
c. By schools-Special schools
-Normal schools
If students are really gifted have to be helped to reach the highest on their
potential.
Lower achieving need to be helped to achieve better.
iv. Readiness
How ready are your students for the next skills, help to identify whether students
are ready to enter into the next level.
v. Attainment level
Assessment helps to know the attainment level to be above, below or average.
This can be obtained by calculating the mean. A normal curve will help to know if
the test is fair.
vi. Going beyond normal
• The high and low achievers
- Find reasons for lower achievers
- Find ways or opportunities to help high achievers
vii. Diagnosing -student’s problems, teacher’s effectiveness
viii. Specific difficult areas
To identify difficult areas for more help.
ix. To identify Special needs students for more help
- Visual, auditory problems etc.
There are two levels of models:
i. Macro level model-we look on the education system at large
ii. Micro level-School/Classroom level assessment
MACRO LEVEL MODEL (CIPP MODEL)
C – Context
I – Inputs
P – Processes
P - Product
CONTEXT
• National and international climate supporting the education system e.g. is the education
system self supportive or otherwise e.g. TZ 40% of the budget comes from outside so one
can evaluate the effectiveness of the education system to be successful or not e.g. SEDP
and PEDP funded by World Bank (WB) and International Monetary Finance (IMF).
• How is the internal or international climate economically capable of supporting the
education system?
• Political stability: Is the political atmosphere of a country stable to support the growth
and effectiveness of the education system?
• Cultural features: Are cultural norms and traditions supporting the education system?
• Economic Strength: Is the education budget sufficient to boost the education system?
• Intellectual climate: Are materials available e.g. books, journals.
INPUTS
• Adequate budget for education
• Parents and community are they supporting education system
• Language of instruction. is it user friendly?
• Culture
• Students readiness
• Physical infrastructures
• Administrative personnel
PROCESS
• How effective and efficient is the teaching and learning process? Attitude of teachers
towards their students. Attitude of students themselves towards learning etc.
• Order and discipline at school which enables smooth process of learning and teaching
• Is the curriculum well prepared, organized and covered?
• Is time to study sufficient to provide good outcomes?
• Is there regular evaluation and feedback to student and administration?
• Variety of teaching strategies during the T/L process
OUTCOMES/ PRODUCT
Focus on system performance
INDICATORS OF SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
• Progression rate: e.g. from class 1-7 if the teaching and learning
process is good students should move to finish the circle.
• Repetition rate: No need of students to repeat the class, if the system
really functions well.
• Dropout rate: A good system should work hard to minimize student
dropout rate.
• Pass rate: How many students pass the exam? How many get A, B, C,
D?
• Participation rate: How many students are enrolled in terms of gender?
E.g. at primary, secondary, university etc and why?
• Completion rate: Do all students who started standard first year
complete the course?
MICRO LEVEL EVALUATION (classroom context)
PHASES OF MICRO LEVEL EVALUATION
i. Pre-instruction: Before going to teach you should have pre requisite information on:
o What do you need your student to know?
o How can you make your students to be interested with your course?
o How are you going to motivate them?
o How much time are you going to spend?
o T/L strategies to be applied should be predetermined; they need to be relevant
to the subject matter.
ii. During instruction:
a. Focus on students attention
b. Focus on students’ understanding by asking them some questions giving them
exercises etc.
c. Response to students’ answers- design a way of the students to elaborate and
clarify students’ doubts. Make a conclusion to what is the right answer.
d. Helping special need students.
iii. Post instruction:
After finishing a module/ topic you can provide a formative or summative test to
evaluate the effectiveness of the T/L process.
TERMINOLOGIES FOR EVALUATION PROCEDURES
i. Norm referenced measurement/evaluation: scores are interpreted in relation to the
scores of a defined group normally called a normative group. How many students are
below/ above or average normal.
ii. Criterion referenced evaluation: scores are interpreted in terms of a clearly defined
domain of learning task. Are the student capable of defining , explaining, demonstrating
etc. a student in this case is competing with his own standards not with others.
iii. Formative evaluation: done continuously during the whole process of teaching and
learning to ascertain that students are following well the lesson. Monitors the learning
process, provide continuous feedback to both students and teachers with regard to
success.
iv. Summative evaluation: designed to determine the extent to which the instruction
objectives have been achieved. Done at the end of the unit of instruction or at the end of
the course. Used for certification.
v. Diagnostic evaluation: help to discover the persisting difficulties left unsolved during
formative evaluation. Aim at helping a student having a problem
vi. Placement evaluation: is concerned with students’ entry performance and intend to
check if the student processes the knowledge and skills necessary for him/her to begin the
program. This can also enable in suggesting placement of some students in advanced
course of study or in special class or determine the teaching and learning activities to be
used.
vii. Maximum performance: deals with interpreting how well an individual is performing
and how best can perform e.g. aptitude test which are designed to predict success in some
future learning activities and achievement test which indicates the degree of success in
the past learning activities.
viii. Typical performance: focuses on what individual will do rather than what they can
do. Focuses on identifying interest, attitudes and other personal habit. This is used for
counseling students in their further education and vocation choice.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
Educational goals; are general aims or purposes of education that are stated as broad as long
range outcomes the school is striving to achieve.
Educational goals originates from national policies and lead to formulation of general school
programmes.
Examples of educational goals includes:
• To develop inquiring mind
• To prepare self-reliant citizens
• To inculcate socialist thinking in young
• To understand the global climate change
What are instructional objectives?
- Are statements that clearly define the desired learning outcome that are expected from
teaching and learning process.
- They show knowledge, understanding, application, thinking and performance skills as
well as attitude to be gained by students as a result of instruction.
- Instructional objectives are very crucial in communicating the purpose of instruction
to students and teachers.
- Furthermore, they provide a guideline for students’ evaluation.
- Instructional objectives can provide a guideline to the teacher on the appropriate
techniques and materials to be used during the whole process of teaching and learning.
- Instructional objectives are sometimes termed as behavioral objectives or specific
learning outcomes since they are more specific and explicit compared to goals which
are too general.
• Eg. by the end of the lesson each student should be able to
Define …,
explain…, differentiate…,draw… etc.
Remember that;
o Specific objectives per lesson can be more than one depending on the length of the
subtopic for the day and the depth of the subtopic too, also age of learners.
o The objectives should contain elements from both high and lower level as stated in
the blooms taxonomy of educational objectives.
o The objectives should not be stated in terms of what the teacher is going to do during
the lesson but in terms of what the learner is expected to do by the end of the lesson.
TAXONOMIES OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
Entails the division of educational objectives into different three areas;
1. Cognitive domain (knowledge based domain): Includes knowledge outcomes and
intellectual skills and abilities
2. Affective domain (attitude based domain): Includes attitudes, feelings, interest,
appreciation and mode of adjustment
3. Psychomotor domain (skills based domain): Includes perception and motor skills.
o The three areas of behavior are further subdivided into sub-categories and arranged
hierarchically, starting from simple sub-category and ending with complex ones.
Cognitive domain (knowledge based domain)
Old version New version
i. Knowledge
ii. Comprehension
iii. Application
iv. Analysis
v. Synthesis
vi. Evaluation
i. Remembering-(receiving, recognizing and recalling relevant
knowledge from long term memory)
ii. Understanding- (constructing meaning from oral, written,
graphic)
iii. Applying
iv. Analyzing
v. Evaluating
vi. Creating- (putting elements together to form a coherent or
functional whole: reorganizing elements into a new pattern
or structure
Affective domain (attitude based domain):
Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react emotionally and their
ability to feel other living things. Pain or joy
Affective domain typically targets the awareness and growth in attitudes, emotion and
feelings.
Five stages:-
i. Receiving: lowest level; the students passively pay attention; receiving is
about the students memory and recognition as well
ii. Responding: students actively participate
iii. Valuing: value to an object, phenomenon or piece of information
iv. Organization: put together different values, information and ideas and
accommodate them
v. Characterization: the student holds a particular value or belief that now
exerts influence the behaviour
Psychomotor domain (skills based domain)
i. Perception: ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activities. This ranges from
sensory, stimulation, through cue selection to translation
ii. Set: refers to readiness to act. It includes mental, physical and emotional sets
iii. Guided response: are early stages in learning a complex skills that include limitation,
trial and error
iv. Mechanism:
v. Complex overt response: this is the skillful performance of motor acts that involve
complex movement patterns. Proficiency s indicated by quick accurate
vi. Adaptation: skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement
patterns to fit requirements
vii. Organization: it is creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or
specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize created based upon highly developed
skills. Develop a new and comprehensive training programme.
What is Monitoring
Monitoring is the systematic, regular and purposeful observation on how program
activities are progressing or recording of activities taking place.
It is a process of routinely gathering and analyzing information on all aspects of the
program for giving feedback about the progress of the program to the donors,
implementers and beneficiaries and finally it gives chance to make decisions for
improving the performance of the program.
explain…, differentiate…,draw… etc.
Remember that;
o Specific objectives per lesson can be more than one depending on the length of the
subtopic for the day and the depth of the subtopic too, also age of learners.
o The objectives should contain elements from both high and lower level as stated in
the blooms taxonomy of educational objectives.
o The objectives should not be stated in terms of what the teacher is going to do during
the lesson but in terms of what the learner is expected to do by the end of the lesson.
TAXONOMIES OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
Entails the division of educational objectives into different three areas;
1. Cognitive domain (knowledge based domain): Includes knowledge outcomes and
intellectual skills and abilities
2. Affective domain (attitude based domain): Includes attitudes, feelings, interest,
appreciation and mode of adjustment
3. Psychomotor domain (skills based domain): Includes perception and motor skills.
o The three areas of behavior are further subdivided into sub-categories and arranged
hierarchically, starting from simple sub-category and ending with complex ones.
Cognitive domain (knowledge based domain)
Old version New version
i. Knowledge
ii. Comprehension
iii. Application
iv. Analysis
v. Synthesis
vi. Evaluation
i. Remembering-(receiving, recognizing and recalling relevant
knowledge from long term memory)
ii. Understanding- (constructing meaning from oral, written,
graphic)
iii. Applying
iv. Analyzing
v. Evaluating
vi. Creating- (putting elements together to form a coherent or
functional whole: reorganizing elements into a new pattern
or structure
Affective domain (attitude based domain):
Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react emotionally and their
ability to feel other living things. Pain or joy
Affective domain typically targets the awareness and growth in attitudes, emotion and
feelings.
Five stages:-
i. Receiving: lowest level; the students passively pay attention; receiving is
about the students memory and recognition as well
ii. Responding: students actively participate
iii. Valuing: value to an object, phenomenon or piece of information
iv. Organization: put together different values, information and ideas and
accommodate them
v. Characterization: the student holds a particular value or belief that now
exerts influence the behaviour
Psychomotor domain (skills based domain)
i. Perception: ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activities. This ranges from
sensory, stimulation, through cue selection to translation
ii. Set: refers to readiness to act. It includes mental, physical and emotional sets
iii. Guided response: are early stages in learning a complex skills that include limitation,
trial and error
iv. Mechanism:
v. Complex overt response: this is the skillful performance of motor acts that involve
complex movement patterns. Proficiency s indicated by quick accurate
vi. Adaptation: skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement
patterns to fit requirements
vii. Organization: it is creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or
specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize created based upon highly developed
skills. Develop a new and comprehensive training programme.
What is Monitoring
Monitoring is the systematic, regular and purposeful observation on how program
activities are progressing or recording of activities taking place.
It is a process of routinely gathering and analyzing information on all aspects of the
program for giving feedback about the progress of the program to the donors,
implementers and beneficiaries and finally it gives chance to make decisions for
improving the performance of the program.
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